Aspects of Internet Censorship by the Government

Aspects of Internet Censorship by the Government Introduction Internet can be defined as computer networks interconnection using a standard protocol to provide information to the entire world irrespective of where one is at any time (Garcia 32). The networks compose of public computers, learning institutions computers, business enterprises computers and private organization computers for local and global scope.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Aspects of Internet Censorship by the Government specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Earlier the internet was being referred to as the information super highway, its’ main aim of was to avail limitless information to everyone who needs it as fast as possible. Internet censorship refers to the act of controlling information access through the internet. Main motives of internet censorship vary from one website to another (â€Å"Research profiles.† 1). Main reasons are children protection from harmful and expl icit material, enabling grown up avoid contents that may compromise their community and personal standards, imposition of a moral framework in adult communication through the internet, and blocking of information material that is illegal to possess according to the government of a particular country under consideration. The government uses various techniques to censor internet depending on the content they want to restrict. It does so through the use of program software called web filters or censor ware. Internet censorship Main techniques for internet censorship include, IP blocking technique, this target website hosted by a common server. The entire websites hosted by that particular IP address are blocked (â€Å"Research profiles† 1).Whenever one tries to access them he/she is denied the access rights. Filtering domain name server (DNS) method, in this method the domain name is not resolved hence one is unable to access the site. This method uses software that restrict res olving of the domain name, as a result the target website is unavailable. Packet filtering method, this technique uses keywords in filtering the content to be accessed, if the keyword is detected the site content is blocked. Another method is through the use of the uniform resource locator (URL), it uses keywords to block censored site from access. When one try to access a website the uniform resource locator is checked if it consists of the restricting keyword, if the keyword is found in the URL the site become unavailable. Reasons for censorship Different government censors the internet due to different reasons, some may be reasonable and varied, while others are misuse of the power by the government. This has created a controversial situation of whether the government should carry out internet censorship or not (Kenny 1).Advertising Looking for research paper on ethics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Different pe ople have different views depending on the perspective one look the situation from, each any everyone has reason and evidence to support his/her theory. The positive aspects of internet censorship by the government around the world are immense. World internet censorship ratings Blue No censorship Yellow Some censorship Red Country under surveillance from Reporters without Borders Grey Internet black holes (most heavily censored nations) The rule makers and enforcers should work hand in hand. Their Failure to cooperate leads the rule amounting to nothing. The social contract theory was developed by the philosopher Thomas Hobbes; it argues that without rules and a systematic way of enforcing them the efforts amount to nothing. It uses the concept of cooperation between involved parties, they mutually resolve to follow laid down guidelines.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Aspects of Internet Censorship by the Government specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The guidelines are the rules set to benefit the people socially. All agree there should be rules laid down and the government should ensure they are enforced to all irrespective of one position. This theory was develop due to no man has authority over others naturally, hence there was need to establish contracts based on covenants. For censorship to be effective the law enforces and the designers should be one body (Eid 1). Currently there are many unethical action been carried out, since the enforcers have absconded their duties. Regulations that govern the internet ethic are no longer being observed while the law enforces are enforcing new rules at will without consulting. Recently the government of Afghanistan censored interactive sites without even consulting. This shows there is a link between the enforcers and the law makers. The rules are desirable if the effect s of their consequences is positive. If the consequences are negat ive then the rule is undesirable. The theory of rule utilitarianism was developed as a result of weaknesses in the act utilitarianism theory. The morals theory argues that an action is morally right, if the consequences of an action results to an increase in the level of happiness. The theory uses the rules when explaining the moral values of an individual contrary to the act utilitarianism which uses the principle of utility (â€Å"Introduction to Content Filtering† 7). It tries to exploit the fact that the rules are universally adoptable, hence result to immense happiness. Rule utilitarianism and Kantianism are similar in that they use the rule to base their argument. The difference between the two is that rule utilitarian emphasis on the action consequences while the Kantianism emphasizes on the action motive. It encourages universal adoption of an action that will increase the pleasure of the affected subjects. In the year 2003 August, a worm by the name of blaster infect ed computer system using windows operating system .The worm exploited a security loophole in the windows operating system. It resulted to excess network traffic and also disabled some of the networks. The infection resulted to computer rebooting itself continually. Another worm named Nachi was developed to exploit the same loophole, but did not infect those immune to the blaster worm. On contrary Nachi worm accessed the computer in the network to destroy blaster worm copies and also to download patches of windows to fix the loophole problem. According to the computer ethics introduction of harmful malware in a network is unethical and prohibited. According to the rule utilitarian it was morally correct since the consequences of the action increased pleasure to the affected subject.Advertising Looking for research paper on ethics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Impact on the society The consequences of an action do not matter. What matters are the actions themselves. The act utilitarianism theory was developed by philosophers Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill. This contradicted the earlier theory of Kantianism. It based its’ argument on the fact that an action is termed to be good if the result benefit a person and undesirable if the action harm someone. The theory was founded on the principle of utility, where the action is gauged to be right or wrong depending on the effect on the level of happiness on the concerned party. This theory measures the morality by determining the rise or fall of happiness on the concerned party. Attitude behind an action is not relevant in this argument, what is of more concern is the consequences of the actions. Being in this context is used to refer to anything that may experiences happiness and sadness. From the definition the being not only refers to the humans but also other mammals. It is hard to measure utility thus several attribute have been selected to weigh the effect of an action on the pain and pleasure (Carter 1). Intensity measures the experience extent, certainty measures the likelihood, and duration measures the experience length, extent measures the number of being affected, purity measures the concentration of pain or pleasure, and fecundity measures the ability replicate the experience. Freedom without limit is always abused; most internet users do not observe the internet rules set aside to govern access of information. Almost all government censors sensitive government information or the information is not availed to the internet users. The explicit material in the internet should be restricted to avoid underage from accessing them. Most of the Muslim dominant countries pornographic materials have been completely censored. This ensures the young ones are protected from obscene materials. The action of the government is essential to maintain a morally uprig ht generation in censoring some materials. Due to the complex internet network the government cannot leave the censoring action to parents or private companies, it has to undertake the action itself. The will motivating an action should be the basis of judging an action whether morally right or wrong. An action may not be moral but the motive was moral. The Kantianism` theory was developed by a philosopher named Immanuel Kant. His argument was, people action and deeds should be based on moral laws which are universally acceptable. Citing the bible examples to support his theory, he believed for any supreme moral law to hold it must be based upon some reasoning. Someone who is a Kantian should be able to state something whether it is good or bad and qualify it using specific and varied reasoning. It entails more than arguing whether something is morally right or wrong. The main reasoning was something may be morally right, yet it can be used wrongly to harm others or cause conflict. In this world there are barely good things without need to qualify them to be good. Only good will can be termed to be good, since there is no need to qualify it to be good. An action cannot be termed to be good simply due to the beneficial results; something good is good irrespective of the outcome from the action. What we are meant to do is more important than what we do. We should act out of morals instilled in use rather than what we feel we should do, our moral should be the driving force upon our actions. The oppressive regime use this theory to suppress it citizen and deprive them information access. They censor interactive sites to intimidate those opposing their agenda. Late 2009 China censored interactive site especially in Tibet area. This was meant to curb growing defiance against the government It is hard to say that the consequences of an action do not matter; what’s matter is the action itself. People are more concerned in the results not the way the results ha ve been achieved. Kantianism theory advocate that the motive is what’s matters not he actual result of the actions. If you have a granary infested with rats, there are different ways to remedy the situation. If you burn down the whole granary it is an option but at what cost. As much as the motive of an action is good the consequence are dire. As much as the government may have good motives and intention in censoring the internet, caution should be taken to ensure the consequences do not outweigh the gains. The Kantianism theory should not be employed much in censoring as it may result to undesirable dire consequences. January this year the Iran government censored all interactive site, in a mission to curb government critics who were using them to sell their ideas. In addition they also banned women right websites; this caused more harm than good. It also denied the woman their rights to voice out their view; such school of thought belongs to the Stone Age where women were c onsidered inferior. Error analyses of filters Filtering Product Misdetection False Alarm Error Rate Smart Filter 15% 7% 11% Surf Watch 12% 7% 10% Web Sense 17% 9% 13% I-Gear 36% 10% 23% Cyber Patrol 16% 7% 11% N2H2 14% 7% 11% Conclusion Government Internet censorship is not meant to suppress the society of information access, although it may result not unanticipated negative result. Every government actions to censor internet access are meant for the better of its citizen. But there are isolated cases, where the government censors internet access using unvaried bases. This may result the country citizen being left behind in the fast growing global village. The reason for censoring internet should be clearly defined and measures put in place to protect the law from being abused. The law should also clearly define the method and modes to be used in censoring to avoid safe site from being blocked due to criterion used to block. From the theories discussed above, it i s clear from the different approaches the main objective of all is the effect of censoring to the people. They all agree if censoring result to positive effect then it is worthy but if it is harmful then it is harmful to the same people it ought to be protecting. Irrespective of the reasons behind the censoring of the internet the result should be positive, it should not affect the people’s majority negatively. Whether it uses the rules, consequences of the action or the will motivating the action, the moral effect should be upheld at all times. Internet should be used for moral upright or justifiable action at all time. The internet ethos should be upheld and observed by all internet users indiscriminately of their position. Error analysis of filters for the distinct data set Filtering Product Misdetection False Alarm Error Rate Smart Filter 13% 4% 8% Surf Watch 12% 11% 11% Web Sense 12% 7% 10% I-Gear 36% 7% 21% Cyber Patrol 15% 9% 12% N2H2 11% 1% 6% Compl ete censoring of the internet is contrary to the objective of having it and unhealthy to the people. The main aim of the internet is information sharing among the users and all information about any subject across the world should be accessible from anywhere in the world (Edelman 2). Censoring result to discriminated information sharing and result to the internet falling short of its main objective. This hurt many sector in the world from business to entertainment. Although internet censoring is essential, it should be done up to a certain level where it cause more good than harm to the people. Carter, Wendy. â€Å"How to write a thesis statement.† 2003- July 27, 2010. tadafinallyfinished.com/how-to-write-a-thesis-statement.html Edelman, Benjamin. â€Å"Documentation of Internet Filtering in Saudi Arabia.† July 27, 2010, http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/filtering/saudiarabia/ Eid, Gamal. â€Å"The Internet in the Arab World A Space for Repression?† Reports and Pres s Releases. The Arabic Network for Human Rights Information. 2004- July 27, 2010 anhri.net/en/reports/net2004 Garcia_Murillo, M. â€Å"Assessing the impact of Internet Telephony on the deployment of telecommunications infrastructure.† July 27, 2010. http://faculty.ischool.syr.edu/mgarciam/Research/ppr%20IP%20telephonyIEP05.pdf Introduction to Content Filtering. â€Å"What is this service?† July 27, 2010. isu.net.sa/saudi-internet/contenet-filtring/filtring.htm Kenny, Aaron. â€Å"Inside Internet Filtering.† 2009- July 27, 2010, insideinternetfiltering.com/category/government/ Kuwait. â€Å"Research profiles.† July 27, 2010, http://opennet.net/research/profiles/kuwait Saudi Arabia. â€Å"Research Profiles.† July 27, 2010, http://opennet.net/research/profiles/saudi-arabia

Biography of Howard Hughes, Businessman and Aviator

Biography of Howard Hughes, Businessman and Aviator Howard Hughes (December 24, 1905–April 5, 1976) was an American businessman, movie producer, aviator, and philanthropist. Over the course of his life, he amassed a fortune of $1.5 billion. Though Hughes had many accomplishments in his professional career, he is now best remembered for his final years as an eccentric recluse. Fast Facts: Howard Hughes Known For: Hughes was a businessman, film producer, and aviator known for his immense wealth and eccentric lifestyle.Also Known As: Howard Robard Hughes Jr.Born: December 24, 1905 in Humble or Houston, TexasParents: Howard R. Hughes Sr. and Allene Stone GanoDied: April 5, 1976 in Houston, TexasEducation: California Institute of Technology, Rice UniversityAwards and Honors: Congressional Gold Medal, International Air Space Hall of FameSpouse(s): Ella Rice (m. 1925–1929), Jean Peters (m. 1957–1971) Early Life Howard Hughes was born in either Humble or Houston, Texas, on December 24, 1905. Hughes father, Howard Hughes Sr., made his fortune by designing a drill bit that could penetrate hard rock. Prior to this invention, oil drillers werent able to reach the large pockets of oil lying beneath such rock. Howard Hughes Sr. and a colleague established the Sharp-Hughes Tool Company, which held the patent for the new drill bit, manufactured it, and leased it to oil companies. Though he grew up in a wealthy household, Howard Hughes Jr. had difficulty focusing on his studies and changed schools often. Rather than sitting in a classroom, Hughes preferred to learn by tinkering with mechanical things. For instance, when his mother forbade him from having a motorcycle, he built one himself by assembling a motor and adding it to his bicycle. Hughes was a loner in his youth. With one notable exception, he never really had any friends. Family Tragedy and Inheritance When Hughes was just 16 years old, his doting mother passed away. Then, not even two years later, his father suddenly died. Howard Hughes received 75 percent of his fathers million-dollar estate (the other 25 percent went to relatives). Hughes immediately disagreed with his relatives over the running of Hughes Tool Company, but being only 18 years old, Hughes could not do anything about it. He would not legally be considered an adult until he reached the age of 21. Frustrated but determined, Hughes went to court and got a judge to grant him legal adulthood. He then bought out his relatives shares of the company. At age 19, Hughes became the full owner of the company. That same year he married Ella Rice, his first wife. Film Production In 1925, Hughes and his wife decided to move to Hollywood and spend some time with Hughes uncle Rupert, who was a screenwriter. Hughes quickly became enchanted with movie making. He jumped right in and produced a film called Swell Hogan. He quickly realized the film wasnt good, however, and never released it. Hughes learned from his mistakes and continued making films. Two Arabian Knights, his third film, won an Oscar for Best Comedy Direction in 1929. With this success under his belt, Hughes decided to make an epic about aviation and set to work on Hells Angels, the story of two British pilots set during World War I. The film became Hughes obsession. His wife, tired of being neglected, divorced him. Hughes continued making films and produced more than 25 of them, including Scarface and The Outlaw. Aviation In 1932, Hughes developed a new obsession- aviation. He formed the Hughes Aircraft Company, bought several airplanes, and hired numerous engineers and designers to help him design a faster plane. He spent the rest of the 1930s setting new speed records. He flew around the world in 1938, breaking Wiley Posts record. Though Hughes was given a ticker-tape parade upon his arrival in New York, he was already showing signs of wanting to shun the public spotlight. In 1944, Hughes won a government contract to design a large, flying boat that could carry both people and supplies to the war in Europe. The Hughes H-4 Hercules (also known as the Spruce Goose), the largest plane ever constructed, was flown successfully in 1947 but never flew again. Hughes was involved in several accidents during his aviation career, including one that killed two people and left Hughes with major injuries. A near-fatal crash in 1946 left Hughes with a crushed lung, cracked ribs, and third-degree burns. During his recovery, he enlisted the help of engineers to design a new hospital bed. Reclusion By the mid-1950s, Hughes dislike of being a public figure began to severely affect his life. Though he married actress Jean Peters in 1957, he began avoiding public appearances. He traveled for a bit and in 1966 he moved to Las Vegas, where he holed himself up in the Desert Inn Hotel. When the hotel threatened to evict him, he purchased the hotel. Hughes also bought several other hotels and properties in Las Vegas. For the next several years, hardly a single person saw him. He had become so reclusive that he almost never left his hotel suite. At this time, Hughes was suffering from obsessive-compulsive disorder and germophobia. Death In 1970, Hughes marriage ended and he left Las Vegas. He moved from one country to another and died in 1976 aboard an airplane while traveling from Acapulco, Mexico, to Houston, Texas. Hughes had become such a hermit in his final years- and his physical health had so deteriorated- that no one was quite sure it was he who had died, so the Treasury Department had to use fingerprints to confirm his death. Legacy Hughes is perhaps best remembered for his contributions to the American film industry and for his eccentric behavior. His film archive- a collection of over 200 works- is now part of the Academy Film Archive. Hughes life has been the subject of numerous films, including The Amazing Howard Hughes, Melvin and Howard, and The Aviator. Sources Bartlett, Donald L., and James B. Steele.  Empire: The Life, Legend, and Madness of Howard Hughes. W.W. Norton, 1980.Higham, Charles.  Howard Hughes: The Secret Life. Virgin, 2011.

Investigation the Consumer Needs and Quality Marketing Essay

Investigation the Consumer Needs and Quality Marketing - Essay Example In order to meet consumer requirements and behavior, marketing research is conducted. Marketing Research helps to identify an appropriate marketing mix. Marketing Mix is actually the right combination of product, price, place, and promotion. Such research may either be formal or informal. Behavior that influences a consumer to prefer one brand over another is known as Consumer Behavior. It is all about the choices and preferences of a final consumer. McGraw-Hill/Irwin defined Consumer Behavior as The study of individuals, groups, or organizations and the processes they use to select, secure, use, and dispose of products, services, experiences, or ideas to satisfy needs and the impacts that these processes have on the consumer and society. Marketers use this knowledge to product design and price determination. Before making a purchase, consumers go through five stages of decision-making process such as; need recognition and problem awareness, information search, evaluation of alternatives, purchase, and post-purchase evaluation. First of all, the consumer recognizes his need. For example, a need for water in thirst. Then a consumer finds out the options available to meet his deprivation.

Students should identify a current issue in the Australian news media Essay

Students should identify a current issue in the Australian news media relating centrally to some aspect of Australian employment - Essay Example The article is more vividly focused on the status of children of Australia, who are ridden of maternal love and care due to the weak employment relation law of Australian government. The article shows that Australia lags behind some of the developing countries on employment relations issue, which is a shame on the country’s prestige. The article argues that the maternity leave provision of the country is weak and this reflects on the health and wellbeing of Australian children. The author has put down some major points in this article, which conveys the government’s concern over the rights of women, and the health and wellbeing of the future generation. The article review The author has put great effort in the introductory part of the article, as it starts with the ill status of Australian mothers comparing to those of the other developed countries. This is an extremely attractive factor as it catches the mind of the readers, as they are interested in knowing the core i ssue of the article. This introductory part of the article is literally credible since the well acknowledged advocacy group is highlighting the fact. The author has taken interest in providing some statistical facts about other countries when in comparison with Australia, and the place of the latter in the mother index ranking. Here the two parties involved in the employment relation issue are the Australian government and female employees of the country. The article in the later part introduces facts delivered by the established organization Save the Children which adds to the luster and credibility of the article. The Save the Children organization argues that government is less responsible and has shown negligence in implementing right for women employees regarding maternity leave. The article claims that Australia provides only 18 weeks of maternity leave for women employees, which, when compared with other developed countries, is low. As per Leslie (2012), â€Å"Probably one o f the factors that's bringing us down the most is our paid parental leave scheme. It's recently introduced this year, 18 weeks at a flat rate," spokeswoman Nicole Cardinal said. Such quoting by the author in the article assures the readers that the information delivered is accurate and genuine. Apart from its strength, the article also has some obvious negative aspects which can be presented clearly. The main demerit of the article is that it is small and precise. The author has not put much effort to present more statistical facts about the pathetic state of women in Australia, who are denied maternity leave. The article, moreover, is not casting enough light upon the government’s role in uplifting the employment rights of women in Australia. Here, in the article, the concentration is more on the arguments and suggestion of one organization which is the Save the Children group. This is disadvantageous as the readers must be given a good chance to contemplate on the ideas and perception of other organizations and Government on this matter. Problem Solution and Recommendation The main problem focused here is the ignorance of Australian govern

Physical Activity and Academic Achievement

Physical Activity and Academic Achievement Physical Activity and Academic Achievement in College Students Abstract The purpose of this study was to determine whether those that schedule regular exercise into their lifestyles achieve greater academic success overall. To do so, scores on the Graduate Record Examination (GRE) test were compared before the participants worked out to the scores after the students worked out regularly for three weeks. Participants were 50 Psychology students randomly selected at University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC). The hypothesis was that participants will answer fewer questions on the GRE if they do not work out. Students will answer more questions correctly after they work. The predicted results were that students will answer correctly 20 out of 30 questions on the verbal section and 18 out of 28 questions on the math section before they work out regularly. After the three week work out, the students answered 24 out of 30 questions on the verbal section and 26 out of 28 questions on the math section. There was no main effect on type of questions. There was a main effect on the exercise that after the students worked out they scored higher. There was an interaction that after the students worked out they answered more questions correctly on both sections, verbal and math. The predicted results caused a possible correlation between physical fitness and academic achievement. However, the results should be interrupted carefully, as more studies still need to be done in order to completely support that physical fitness causes academic achievement to improve. It is possible that physical and mental process correspond with each other and influence each other. Introduction The positive health benefits of regular exercise are widely known. Even though due to much research where it is evident that there are positive benefits of physical activity, physical education in schools is being viewed as only an extracurricular activity rather than a necessity (Grissom, 2005). When school budgets are being cut short, physical education is being cut first; this in the long run negatively affects the students. Previous researchers and advocates argue that daily physical education in schools improves students concentration and cognitive functioning (Sibley, 2003). Physical education is an essential factor in students academic achievements. To date, in the United States, Canada and Australia, there were five controlled experimental studies done that evaluated the effects on academic performance of providing students with additional time for physical education. All the studies have shown that even if there is no drastic improvement, it definitely does not need to be sacrificed (Shephard, Volle, Lavallee, LaBarre, Jequier, 1999). In 2007, 287 fourth and fifth graders from British Columbia were studied to determine if providing daily physical activity affected their academic performance (Ahamed, 2007). They participated in daily ten minute classroom activity in addition to their regular 80 minute PE class. Even though the physical activity time been increased by about fifty minutes per week, the students who received extra physical activity had similar stantarized test scores for mathematics, reading and language arts as students in the control group. The researchers concluded a positive correlation between physical activi ty and academic performance (Ahamed, 2007). Overall, it is extremely difficult to calculate a statistically significant difference between experiment and control groups because it is difficult to raise academic achievement (Shephard 1996). Also whatever research that has been done in order to find the relationship between physical fitness and academic achievement primarily focused on middle school to high school students. The purpose of this study is to determine whether college students that work out regularly perform better than those that do not work out at all. College students have a lot going on during their academic career. This study is being done in order to determine whether those that schedule regular exercise into their busy lifestyles achieve greater academic success overall. The practical implication of the proposed study is that those who work out regularly and lead a healthy lifestyle perform better on tests rather than those students who do not work out. The experiment is trying to demonstrate that it is needed for students to not forget to lead a healthy lifestyle and to take time out of the busy schedules to exercise and that will lead to higher test scores. The hypothesis was that participants will answer fewer questions on the GRE if they do not work out. Students will answer more questions correctly after they work. Also, there will an interaction between working out and number of questions answered. Refer to Table 1 and Graph 1 for predicted results. The predicted results were that students will answer correctly 20 out of 30 questions on the verbal section and 18 out of 28 questions on the math section before they work out regularly. After the three week work out, the students answered 24 out of 30 questions on the verbal section and 26 out of 28 questions on the math section. There was no main effect on type of questions. There was a main effect on the exercise that after the students worked out they scored higher. Method Participants 50 undergraduate college students at University of Illinois at Chicago were between the ages of 18-25 were tested. Both male and females sexes were approximately equally represented. The participants were assigned to participate as part of the Psychology class, which counted towards the class credit. The participants were all healthy which allowed them to participate in the physical portion of the experiment. Design The experiment was a within subjects design. The participants were asked to complete the Graduate Record Examination (GRE) before they exercised for three weeks regularly and after they exercised regularly for three weeks. The exercise consisted of cardio work out. The first independent variable was running on the treadmill for 30 minutes and using the elliptical machine for another 30 minutes and no cardio exercise at all. The second IV was the type of question. The participants were asked to complete the verbal and math sections. The dependent variable was the level of performance on the GRE. The amount of questions answered correctly will determine the level of performance. Materials The materials used were the UIC Wellness Center and the two versions of GRE sample questions from the verbal and math section. Both GRE tests were of the same difficulty. One version was used before the work out, and another version after the 3 week workout. There were 30 questions on the verbal section and 28 questions on the math section. Procedure First the participants were given the GRE both sections, verbal and math. They had 30 minutes to complete the 30 questions on the verbal section. They had 45 minutes to complete the 28 questions on the math section. After the exam, the participants were all signed up at the UIC Wellness Center for regular exercise. They worked out on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays between 1-2 hours. They walked/ran on the treadmill for 30 minutes, rested for 5 and then used the elliptical machine for another 30 minutes. This repeated for three weeks. After the regular work out, the participants were given a different version of the same difficulty GRE tests. Again they had 30 minutes to complete the 30 questions on the verbal section. They had 45 minutes to complete the 28 questions on the math section. In the end, both exams were scored and compared to each other. References Ahamed Y, MacDonald H, Reed K, Naylor PJ, Liu-Ambrose T, McKay H. (2007). School-based physical activity does not compromise childrens academic performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, Volume #39, 371-376. Grissom, JB. (2005). Physical Fitness and Academic Achievement. Journal of Exercise Physiology, Volume #8, 11-25. Shephard RJ, Volle M, Lavallee H, LaBarre R, Jequier JC, Rajic M. (1999). Required physical activity and academic grades: A controlled longitudinal study. Children and Sport. Sibley BA, Etnier JL. (2003). The relationship between physical activity and cognition in children. Pediatric Exercise Science. Tables, Figures IV A: Physical activity A1: No Exercise A2: Exercise 20 24 18 26 B1: Verbal IV B: Type of Questions B2: Math Table 1

P unit

I will also be talking about nature and nurture and how It relates to some of the life stages. The PIES are what everyone needs when they are growing up and get to their full potential they are: physical, intellectual emotional social. Physical needs are things like sleep, food, drink, air, warmth, shelter, reproduction and safety form danger these are things that you cannot live without and need to survive. Intellectual Is the second need In life Is the need to learn, face challenges, Interests and hobbies.The third need is emotional needs this is things like: respect to you and others, identity, self-esteem and self-worth. The final need is social this is when you need to feel a ensue of belonging, such as a relationship with someone, affection, family, a work group, and love. Development from O-death physical, Intellectual, emotional and social Conception and birth In the physical stage you are constantly growing In terms of biological cells growing from a cluster in the fallopian tubes to an embryo.By 8 weeks the embryo develops Into a fetus inside your mother's womb and develops tissues, limb, organs and senses, this process ends when your mother gives birth to you. In the Intellectual stage you do not learn anything as you do not thing. In the emotional stage you start o grow an attachment to your mother but you cannot have any self-work or concept as you cannot learn. In the social stage you grow a close relationship with your mum as she Is carrying you and her body Is feeding you this Is the only relationship that you develop in this stage as you have not been born yet so there for cannot build any relationships.You may feel a sense of belonging during pregnancy but that would be It. Infancy In the physical stage you keep constantly growing and developing you grow In height and weight to become stronger this is so that you can support you self you first start y supporting your head then move on to supporting your back when you sit up then you support yo ur whole body when you start standing up for the first time. Also your learn how to digest foods that are easily digest able at first then you go on to after you have been weaned of your mother's milk.The intellectual stage of infancy is that the child starts to communicate with words and is in the process of learning to speak. The child may also be able to count to 10 and say the alphabet but as doing this they do not actually know the meaning of what they are saying an example of this Is If you UT a lop In front of them and then 5 x ups they would chose the ups as they think that there are more of them and do not understand the concept of what they are 1 OFF like their parents or close family and friends if this effected in the infancy then it can affect you in later life.An example of this is that if you aren't securely attached to their mum or dad may in later life be not as able to cope with stress and other major life events. In the social stage of infancy by the age of 2 mont hs they may start to smile and by 3 months they will be able to respond to their parent's voices after 5 months they can recognize people that they have seen such as grandparents and family friends. They start to form an emotional attachment to their parents and by the age of 30 months -36 months they are playing alongside other children and making friends.Childhood In the physical stage children grow constantly but they do it at a slower speed than in infancy. By the age of 4 they will be able to kick and throw a large ball when the child is 6 its head will be only having ten per cent left to grow even though its body still has ages to grow fully. They may be able to skip or ride a bike. Their reproductive organs stay small and useless until puberty. In the intellectual stage children can now think logically and understand simple logical mind puzzles.You may find that a 7-8 year old may find it difficult to mentally imagine puzzles that do not make perfect sense or riddle like ques tions In the Emotional stage children start to use their imagination and they begin to understand the roles that others play in their life. They start to picture them self how they want them to be (ideal self) and their parent's relationship my how the child feels (sense of self-worth). The way that they act at school with their teacher and friends may influence there self-confidence if this stage goes wrong then in the long run and in adult hood they may feel a sense of failure or no self-worth.In the social stage young children are dependent on their careers such there parents they begin to learn social roles such as friendship and teacher student relationships. Adolescence In the physical stage the child/ adult are nearly fully grown and puberty starts to happen. This happens in girls between 11 and 13, it general happens for girls earlier than boys. Boys start puberty between the ages of 13 and 15. Puberty is the stage where the body starts to develop its sexual organs ready for sexual reproduction it is started by the release of hormones that control their sexual development.Both female and male will have a growth spurt at some point where they will grow in height at faster rate than usual. During in puberty girls breasts get larger and they start their fat layers start to increase under the skin. Also they get their menstrual periods and pubic hair starts to grow. During in puberty boys also get pubic hair as well as facial hair. Their voices break. This means that their voices get deeper in tone. Their testes and penis become larger. In the intellectual stage they are now an adult thinker and can thank through and solve complicated problems in their heads.They can work out a problem like the car won't start as the battery if dead or it needs more fuel. They also may start thinking abstractly and be able to solve a problem without seeing the end idea. In the emotional stage teen ages start to get a sense of their own identity and their sense of self star ts to develop further. In this time it may be trustful as they may not have very good self-esteem. This is linked to a person's sense of identity. A strong sense of identity is need so that loving sexual attachments can be made.This also means that they will feel secure in the work place when influenced by how their family affect them. Teenagers have to cope with becoming confident with their sexuality and also becoming socially independent from the family. Friends are important in this stage as they help them fit it and belong in a group. Teenagers will copy their friend's behavior and the way they dress as well as levels and cultural values. Adult hood In the physical stage you are at the peel of your physical performance from the age 18 – 28 this is proved by champions that do sport.This is because adults lose their strength and speed with age. Exercise can help you to develop your physical strength and can increase your fitness if you are overweight you will lose weight u ntil you are fit or have a good IBM. In the intellectual stage you are already fully developed fully and need to Get a Job during adulthood this involves learning new skills, skills can also be learn at the early stages of adulthood when a person leaves home and lives independently this can include cooking and managing a home budget. And then in the later years of adulthood adults begin to react more slowly.In the emotional stages your development starts when a person leaves home and starts to be independent and self-reliant also getting a new Job means you have to behave in a mature manner and you as a person starts controlling the way you respond to emotions. In the social stage you when an adult leaves home they start to build up ewe relationship like getting a partner or getting married and having their own family they start to love in different ways they love their friends, partners, family and children but in different ways.Being in a working atmosphere means that you develop work friendships as well as colleagues. Old age and the final stages of life In the physical stage older adults are more prone to putting on weight this may happen because they have become less active but still eating the same amount of food as when they were younger. Older adults also are at a higher risk of getting disease and disability. For women menopause happens around the age of 45-60 this is when they become less fertile and are not as able to conceive children.In the intellectual stage older adults like adult hood nothing has changed other than the fact that you learn something new every day. But as you get older you may start to forget things this may Just be because of old age or because of dementia or Alchemist's. Everyone is different so there intellectual development is different, for example someone could get dementia this could cause there intellectual development to be affected because they have loss of memory.In the emotional stages emotional development doesn't ch ange much but because of them getting older people can see them as less able and so that can knock there confidence as they can feel that they can't do what they use to be able to do. As you get older, a lot of your friends and family may have passed away because it's the end of their life. Also, older adults may be very close to someone who they had a great relationship and spent most their life with. This person may have passed away and the other person could die of heart ache.In social stages during these years there group of reined cut down and family start to become more important again. They can also be isolated and be on their own a lot of the time or with their partners and so they're not different social groups, such as going to bingo and meeting new people. My celebrity I picked Madonna as my celebrity in her early life she was born in Bay City, Michigan, on August 16, 1958 and her full time is Madonna Louise Veronica Concise. From the age of 5 Madonna had lost her mum due to cancer but she had also Just got a baby sister.The treatment or her mother had to be delayed until the baby reached full ERM, but by then the disease had grown too strong and she passed away on the 1 December 1963. This was a big shock to her and therefore had a tough childhood this may affected her emotional and social stages. Because of the career of singing her intellectual development has developed in relation to writing songs as money coming in was more important. Emotionally; she has been though a lot and from a young age was put under pressure and stress due to finance in the family and the death of her mum.And when she got older due to all the Jobs she is physically and mentally rained because as she has become more famous she has to think about his every move as her whole life is now for everyone to see. This could cause her to be stressed, or depressed as of the media. From a young age she wouldn't have been able to go out with friends as he would have been working as she had a Job and did a lot of ballet. And still as she gets older she has to be careful with who she trusts as because she is famous it could make her quite lonely as she needs to trust people even more than anyone else. References The health and social care LA book 1 P Unit September had then arranged an Interview with my form tutor who helped me Identify what opportunities a business degree in management would help me in she explained hat there are many Job roles and told me to research more into the Job roles and to check the new Vic website. Http://model. Enamel. AC. UK/ had then a broader idea to what I would be getting studying in university. I found out that there are many opportunities in different departments of management 11th Even though I understood what I would be studying in university I thought I would arrange a meeting with the career advisors to see if there are other options or better courses suited towards my needs.My findings suggested in the interview that my creative and writing skills were very good, they suggested me on looking into law as there is a law/ business management BAA honor 1 lath September was not too sure about studying law as I have never thought of studying it, but I thought I would check the requirements and also c heck what the course is all about. Http://WV. Westminster. AC. UK/courses/sub]sects/business-and-management/ undergraduate-courses/full-tale/fumble- management-law 1 OFF aspects of law as well, the economics side of it 11th September.

Why Top Female Athletes Stay in Male-Dominated Sports to an Elite Level

Abstract This study is focused on why top female athletes stay in male-dominated sports to an elite level and involves female athletes from different countries. Semi-structured interviews will be carried out on 15 participants. The study is characteristically interpretive and qualitative, and involves a four-year timeframe. 1. Background Sport is an institution that continues to create, reinforce, and maintain male hegemony. However, some of its aspects may also be seen as a product of collective effort. Gender diversity in sports are often placed in subtle, multi-level and ignored structures and behaviours embodied in sport organisations. Hence, there is a need for continued work on the matter (Fink 2008). The participation of female athletes in male-dominated sports will be explained by male hegemonic concepts as well as cultural and structural concepts.1.1 What prompted the interest in the topicWhat prompted the interest in the topic was the researcher’s own exposure in female sports where she was able to associate with elite female athletes of various ages from different countries, including those under Islamic rule and the Muslim region, such as Iran, Morocco, and Turkey. She has had worked closely with female competitors in over 50 members of the International Federation of Muaythai Amateur (IFMA), and h ence considers the topic a realisable one. Since the researcher is into sports herself and associates with the likely respondents of the study, she finds the topic both interesting and challenging.1.2 Relevance to Previous ResearchThe relevance of the topic to previous research is that it serves as a supporting material to what has already been claimed of the participation of female athletes in male-dominated sports. Previous research has indicated the prevailing role of cultural and structural systems that produce and reproduce these sports as an exclusive realm of male athletes (e.g. Anderson 2008; Carty 2005). The present study confirms these notions, and likewise looks into patterns of possibilities whereby female athletes can be generally accepted and recognised within these once male-stereotyped sports.1.3 Contributions to the Research and the FieldThe study’s contribution to research is identified in its investigation of culture, and somehow, of gender issues, in the p articipation of female athletes in male-dominated sports. Its contribution to the field is its introduction of certain theoretical concepts that can explain why female athletes continue to delve into male-dominated sports and an analytical explanation of their intent to stay or move out of the system.1.4 Research Aims and ObjectivesThis study aims to ascertain why top female athletes stay in male-dominated sports to an elite level; the hurdles they face and how they overcome these hurdles. It also aims to draw out the similarities in challenges faced by these elite athletes and to see if such challenges are similar across cultures and religions. The study purports to use this understanding to help support women to stay in a specific sport once they are already participating. The objectives of the research are as follows: To review the existing literature on the subject of Sports Sociology in relation to women’s sports participation; To conduct interviews and surveys to elite female athletes from various countries; To find out gaps in knowledge within the field; and To provide recommendations for future research. 2. Literature Review This part of the research proposal identifies a range of works and studies related to the topic being investigated. It aims to establish the theoretical framework for the study and provide evidence to the topic.2.1 Trends in the Literature Relating to the Research TopicIn their work, Krane, Choi, and Baird et al. (2004) stated that female athletes live in two cultures: One that is characteristically masculine; and the other – the larger social culture – which celebrates femininity. The study was linked to feminist cultural studies and aimed to determine how female athletes negotiate femininity-based social expectations with athleticism. It involved 21 female athletes who served as participants in focus group discussions. Three themes comprised the data analysis, specifically the ‘influence of physicality, femininity, and athlete as other.’ The data revealed that being athletic is in contrast to being feminine and that the participants themselves felt being marginalised as athletes and expressed that others perceive them as being ‘different’ from typical women. Despite these, they were proud of their physical strength and developed bodies and regarded themselves as being empowered, which can be generalised beyond the context of sports (Krane et al. 2004). The use of focus group discussions in the study aimed at encouraging self-disclosure amongst female athletes with similar experiences and reducing the anxiety that might be felt in individual interviews. The authors also pinpointed the fact that focus groups are especially effective in feminist research (Krane, et al. 2004). According to Carty (2005), sport has been a social aspect that has traditionally prevented women from participating. Recent policy developments and broadening public support enabled girls and women to participate dramatically in sports that had been typically limited only to men. Female athletes had come out from those sports that had been stereotypically designated only to them, such as tennis and gymnastics, and can now play male-dominated sports such as hockey, football, rugby, and so on. Of equal significance is the revealing of masculinity constriction and the concept of gender differences. Hence, Carty explored social changes accompanying the broadening popularity of women in sports and some opposing messages in advertisements initiated by these changes. The qualitative method is used in the study to explore all the issues covered by the aims and objectives, which were tackled through semi-structured interviews. It may be inferred that Carty’s assertion on the constraint s placed against women in regard to participating in male-stereotyped sports is similar to the notion of Krane et al. (2004), specifically the marginalisation of female athletes and their being perceived as different from normal women. There is therefore congruence between the two authors in reference to their view of the situation of female athletes in male-dominated sports. On the other hand, Pringle (2005) emphasised that issues linked to female sport and exercise can be examined via Foucauldian theories. However, the Gramscian theory, which is used to examine the concept of masculine hegemony, remains dominant. The article made a comparison and contrast of the theoretical tools branching from Foucault and Gramsci’s writings in relation to investigating sport and masculinities. It was indicated that masculine hegemony does not simply point to a prevailing concept of masculinity but also to specific understandings of power that may be problematic to some. The discussion is useful to the study as it focused on the concept of masculine hegemony that can address the prevailing male dominance in sports, as well as male sports in general, which had once been (and continuous to be) considered an exclusive field for male athletes. It is important to note that Pringle’s assertion provides the groundwork for the situation of female athletes, as ex plored by the concept of masculine hegemony that explains women’s marginalisation, pinpointed earlier by Carty (2005) and Krane et al. (2004). Pringle’s concept of masculine hegemony was similarly described by Whisenant, Pedersen, and Obenour (2002) who cited the end of the Association of Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW) as the cause for sport administrators to deal with reestablishing their place as athletic directors. The study aimed at assessing the success ratio of these directors, focusing primarily on gender. The initial results validated the expected findings that masculine hegemony is a well-established concept within inter-collegiate athletics. This is note-worthy in the topic’s exploration of the hurdles faced by female athletes in male-dominated sports. On the other hand, Vincent, Imwold, and Masemann et al. (2002) made an investigation of female athletes’ receipt of equitable coverage in â€Å"women’s games.† The study made a comparison of six selected newspapers from Canada, Great Britain, and the United States and how they dealt with male and female athletes during the 1996 Centennial Olympic Games. The qualitative method and content analysis were used for the comparison of all articles and photographs of athletes on all newspapers involved. Albeit there were differences found, the results generally demonstrated an equitable amount of coverage for both male and female athletes participating in the games. The study confirmed the idea that female athletes receive increased newspaper coverage when they participate in major competitions. However, analysing critically Vincent et al.’s work against those of Pringle (2005), Krane et al. (2004), and Carty (2005), one may posit that the former tackled a rather neutral presentation of female athletes vis-a-vis male athletes, as demonstrated by the equitable newspaper coverage on them. Vincent et al. looked into the ‘outward configuration’ of the male-female dichotomous existence in sports, as against the internal focus made by Pringle (2005), Krane et al. (2004), and Carty (2005).2.1.1 The Role of Culture in SportsIn their study, Elling and Knoppers (2005) used a social-critical perspective to analyse symbolic sport inclusion/exclusion in relation to gender and ethnicity amongst adolescents. The findings suggested that dominant normative gendered images still influence young people’s preferences in sport participation. Sport can function as an integrating agent as well as a differentiating and discriminating tool amongst the youth. With regard to gender, sport participation is less predictable because of such circumstances as ethnicity interactions. Albeit ethnic minority females had the least participation in sport, a relatively higher value is placed on traditional masculine sports such as karate and soccer. Additionally, the potential circumstance of being labeled as ‘sissy’ serves as a powerful mechanism to exclude oneself from participating in conventional sports for girls. However, stereotypical images are continually challenged as well (Elling and Knoppers 2005). Viewing the earlier notions of gender-based explanations of the uneven perception between male and female athletes (e.g. Pringle 2005; Krane et al. 2004, and Carty 2005), Elling and Knoppers apparently provided a deeper explanation of the reason for such disparity. On the other hand, Pelak (2005) emphasised on how South African female football players negotiate ideological constrictions in participating in the stereotypically masculine sport. The author highlighted the micro-level experiences of situating athletes within social structures at macro level, such as apartheid. The study used a multi-method approach, including interviews, survey, observations, and documentary data. Various feminist sport frameworks and theoretical insights of Black feminists contributed to the analysis. The findings revealed an ongoing creative resistance amongst female soccer athletes against exclusionary practices in the sport. Pelak evidently upheld the findings of Elling and Knoppers (2005) with regard to symbolic sport inclusion/exclusion, as exemplified by social structures that serve as constraints to female participation in male-dominated sports. Meanwhile, the study of Anderson (2008) explored the cultural and structural elements that contribute to the breeding of anti-feminine perspectives amongst men in team sports. The authors initially led the readers to the view that men’s separation into a homosocial environment puts a limit to their social contact with women and promotes a hostile masculinity that induces the proliferation of orthodox views about women. However, the study also suggested that when these same men participate in a gender-incorporating cheerleading sport competition, they tend to reinvent their perspectives toward women. The author used a range of theoretical concepts and linked them to grounded observations and interviews, upon which a theoretical model was established. He specifically used a socio-feminist theory of masculinity that holds gender as being formulated by an intricate interaction of â€Å"organisational culture, institutional power, and individual agency.† The study involved a sample of 68 male cheerleaders who identified themselves as heterosexual and who used to play football. The findings suggested that the socially negative outcomes affixed to male sport athletes might potentially reduce through gender-incorporating sports (Anderson 2008). This study is relevant to the topic under study as it explains the male athlete’s propensities when participating in male and female stereotypical games, thereby contributing to its query on why women stay in male-dominated sports.2.2 Limitations and/or Gaps in the LiteratureThe existing literature on the topic is observed to include works that are not very recent, which hence suggests a need for updated findings. There are not many academic studies delving into the issue of culture as a prevailing factor for certain sports to be perceived as typically male; and most of which are discussed using gender-based criteria. Theoretical Framework Below is the theoretical framework of the study based on the literature: Figure 1: Theoretical Framework 3. Research Methodology3.1 Research ParadigmThe interpretive and positivist paradigms are utilised in this research. The interpretive paradigm states that social actors generate meanings about their interaction in the world. Social reality is hence interpreted as an attempt to interpret the world, thereby connoting a subscription to realist ontology (Scott and Morrison 2005). The use of interpretive paradigm is justified in this study as it attempts to gather interview data that are grounded on ascertaining perceived realities surrounding female athletes, as well as the meanings they append to these realities. The positivist approach, on the other hand, relies on the methods of the natural science (Lee 1991) and is seen in the study’s use of survey to assist certain inferences suggested by interview data.3.2 Research Design and MethodThis study is characteristically mixed methods (combination of qualitative and quantitative methods) in its research design. Qualitative methods hold that findings about human interaction (e.g. female athletes) can be understood better and more systematically when studied from the inside out rather than the opposite (Monsen and Horn 2008). Quantitative methods, on the other hand, maintain that phenomena can be explained by collecting numerical data (for this study is the survey) that are analysed through statistical methods (Mujis 2011).3.3 ParticipantsThe research participants for both interviews and the survey are 13-35 year-old female athletes from different countries with whom the researcher has frequent association, including those under Islamic rule and Muslim religion, such as Iran, Morocco, and Turkey. The sample size for the interview is 15, which is considered sufficient to generate findings. For the survey, the sample size is 35.3.4 Data CollectionPrimary and secondary data shall be collected. Primary data shall be generated from semi-structured interviews and the survey whilst secondary data shall support the pri mary data and shall be obtained from books and academic journals. An interview schedule and a survey questionnaire will be constructed.3.5 Data Analysis and DiscussionOnce the information has been established, data analysis will take place using the thematic analysis, which intends to find patterns/themes/meanings from a range of data sets (Hamdan 2009). The discussion will be towards addressing the research questions and will be backed by the literature.3.6 Weaknesses and LimitationThe study finds no weakness in its methodology. One limitation that can be identified is in terms of using interviews for data gathering, which is perceived to lack generalisability because of a relatively small sample (Ford 2012). This is addressed by using a larger sample (15 participants) (e.g. Waltz, Krumperman, and Zigmont 2011) and triangulation through the survey.3.7 Ethical ConsiderationsFirst amongst the ethical considerations that the study takes note of is the anonymity of the target participa nts, as well as the confidentiality of data to be collected. It is the researcher’s responsibility to ensure that participants provide informed consent prior to their participation and that they have the right to withdraw their participation at any point, without incurring any liability. The data collection shall take place vis-a-vis having informed the participants of the general purpose of the study and why their participation is being sought. Moreover, the data will be stored in a database using passwords that only the researcher knows, whilst the survey questionnaires will be put to safekeeping and disposed of upon the total completion of the research in order not to be accessed by anyone. The proposal shall require approval from an ethics committee.3.8 Significance of the ResearchThis study is significant in a number of ways, one of which is its contribution to the existing literature on female participation in what has been generally considered as male-dominated sport. Another is its confirmation of the prevailing role of culture and gendered images in such perception, as well as the continuing struggle of female athletes to situate themselves in the realm of sports, thereby adding to the existing knowledge on the subject.3.9 TimelineThe research timeline starts on February 3, 2014 and ends on February 16, 2018. The first part of the survey will be done in May 2014. The various aspects of the research are shown in the Gantt chart below: Figure 2: Gantt chart showing the research timeline References Anderson, E. (2008) ‘I Used to Think Women Were Weak’: Orthodox Masculinity, Gender Segregation, and Sport. Sociological Forum, 23 (2), 257-280. Carty, V. (2005) Textual Portrayals of Female Athletes: Liberation or Nuanced Forms of PatriarchyFrontiers: A Journal of Women Studies, 26 (2), 132-172. Elling, A. and Knoppers, A. (2005) Sport, Gender and Ethnicity: Practices of Symbolic Inclusion/Exclusion. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34 (3), 257-268. Fink, J. S. (2008) Gender and Sex Diversity in Sport Organizations: Concluding Comments. Sex Roles, 58 (1-2), 146-147. Ford, N. (2012) The Essential Guide to Using the Web Research. First Edition. London: Sage Publications Ltd. Hamdan, A. (2009) Muslim Women Speak: A Tapestry of Lives and Dreams. Toronto: Women’s Press. Krane, V., Choi, P. Y. L., Baird, S. M., Aimar, C. M., and Kauer, K. J. (2004) Living the Paradox: Female Athletes Negotiate Femininity and Muscularity. Sex Roles, 50 (5/6), 315-329. Lee, A. S. (1991) Integrating Positivist and Interpretive Approaches to Organizational Research. Organization Science, 2 (4), 342-365. Monsen, E. R. and Horn, L. V. (2008) Research: Successful Approaches. Third Edition. US: American Dietetic Association. Mujis, D. (2011) Doing Quantitative Research in Education with SPSS. Second Edition. London: SAGE Publications. Pelak, C. F. (2005) Negotiating Gender/Race/Class Constraints in the New South Africa: A Case Study of Women’s Soccer. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 40(1), 53-70. Pringle, R. (2005) Masculinities, Sport, and Power: A Critical Comparison of Gramscian and Foucauldian Inspired Theoretical Tools. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 29 (3), 256-278. Scott, D. and Morrison, M. (2005) Key Ideas in Educational Research. NY: Continuum International Publishing Group. Vincent, J., Imwold, C., Masemann, V., and Johnson, J. T. (2002) A Comparison of Selected ‘Serious’ and â€Å"Popular’ British, Canadian, and United States Newspaper Coverage of Female and Male Athletes Competing in the Centennial Olympic Games: Did Female Athletes receive Equitable Coverage in the â€Å"Games of the Women†International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 37 (3-4), 319-335. Waltz, B. J., Krumperman, K. M., and Zigmont, J. (2011) Foundations of EMS Systems. Mason, OH: Delmar Cengage Learning. Whisenant, W. A., Pedersen, P. M., and Obenour, B. L. (2002) Success and Gender: Determining the Rate of Advancement for Intercollegiate Athletic Directors. Sex Roles, 47 (9-10), 485-491.